The purpose of this essay is to introduce the selector of library materials in the field of Middle Eastern Studies to the country of Lebanon. Lebanon has played a vital role in both the ancient and modern history of the Middle East. Current events such as the civil war, the Arab-Israeli Conflict, peace efforts, and the kidnaping of Americans and Europeans have drawn the world's attention to this country.

Geographical, Historical and Cultural Background

The Republic of Lebanon (al-Jumhuriyah al-Lubnaniyah) is a very small country with an area of 10,452 sq. km., (4,036 sq. miles). The population of Lebanon is very difficult to estimate, and no census has been taken since 1943. Many people left the country during the civil war; there are about 2.5 million Lebanese living outside the country. My estimate of the present population would be 2.5-3 million.

The country is located on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea. It is bordered by Syria to the north and east, and by Israel to the south. These borders were established during the French Mandate in 1918. Lebanon is known for the beauty of its mountains which reach a maximum elevation of 10,130 feet at Qurnat al-Sawda', where many cedar trees grow. The mountains are covered with snow six months of the year. Lebanon has various climates, ranging from hot, dry summers to warm, humid winters. The country receives heavy rain in the winter and very little rain in the summer. Summers in the mountains are nice and cool day and night. Many Lebanese and foreign tourists spend most of their days on the beautiful beaches of the country or in the many resorts available in the hills. Lebanon has been referred to as the Switzerland of the Middle East.

The territory known today as Lebanon was under foreign occupation from ancient times until its independence in 1943. From 3,000 BCE to 1918, Lebanon was ruled successively by Canaanites, Babylonians, Persians, Romans, and Ottomans, who ruled Lebanon from 1516 to 1918.¹ After the First World War, Lebanon was placed under French mandate by the League of Nations. In 1926, a Lebanese constitution was written under the supervision of the French and a local Lebanese committee. The constitution apportioned political power on the basis of religious affiliation, and a president was elected and served under French supervision. "A precedent for the future was set in 1937, when the Maronite President Emile Edde appointed a Sunni Muslim to be prime minister.''² From that time onward, the Lebanese government and the French supervisor supported an unwritten agreement that the presidents will always be Maronites and the prime ministers will always be Sunnis. This unwritten agreement was later modified also to include the appointment of a Shi`ite Muslim as speaker of the National Assembly, a Maronite as the commander of the army, and a Druze as the chief-of-staff. The president is elected for a six year term by a two-thirds majority of the National Assembly, which consists of 99 members elected by the people in a national election. These 99 members are divided as follows: 30 Maronite Christians, 20 Sunni Muslims, 19 Shi`ite Muslims, 11 Greek Orthodox Christians, 6 Druzes, 6 Greek Melkite Catholics, 4 Orthodox Armenians, 1 Catholic Armenian, 1 Protestant, and 1 for other religious minorities.³

Lebanon has been politically unstable for many years. The civil war of 1958, which started as a result of Lebanon's refusal to join the union that was formed between Syria and Egypt, developed into a bloody religious war. It took the intervention of American and British troops to calm the situation. The recent civil war which started in 1975 destroyed the Lebanese economy. The Lebanese pound collapsed in 1984. In 1986, $1 = 20 Lebanese pounds; at the time this paper was written, $1 = 2,300 Lebanese pounds. The civil war also led to the intervention of Syria and to two invasions by Israel. Human casualties of the war were very high. The total of those killed or disabled during 1975-76 was estimated by the Lebanese Chamber of Commerce, Industry and Agriculture at 30,000, but other estimates were as high as 60,000.⁴ Since 1976, thousands of people have died as a result of the Israeli invasions and the continuation of the war.

Lebanon is an Arab country and has many cultural characteristics in common with the rest of the Arab world. Throughout its history Lebanon has witnessed the introduction of a succession of influences-Canaanite, Hittite, ancient Egyptian, Persian, Greek, Roman, Byzantine, and Arab. As a result, a rich and diverse culture predominates in the country today. Lebanon is the only country in the Middle East that is governed by a Christian president, although the Christians are no longer the majority in the country. As mentioned above, the Lebanese National Assembly is formed of various religious factions. Lebanon has served as a refuge for religious, political, and ethnic groups for many years. Over a half million Palestinian refugees are living in Lebanon today. Lebanon also has the highest number of political factions and militias in the Middle East. The Socialists and Nasserists consist of some nine political parties. The Shi`ites and Sunnites consist of four political parties including Hizbullah (Party of God) which was responsible for many of the kidnapings of Americans and Europeans. The Christians consist of five different political parties. This diverse cultural and political makeup, as well as Lebanon's pro-western policies, have led Lebanon into many political and religious civil wars. However, the democratic system of the country has survived, and Lebanon remains the cultural center of the Middle East.

The official language of the country is Arabic, but because of the high level of education, English, French, and Armenian are spoken by many people. Aramaic is used in the religious services of some sects. Education is free at government schools and universities. Lebanon arguably has the best private school system in the Middle East. French and American styles of education are also readily available in the country. The strong and diverse educational opportunities give Lebanon the highest literacy rate in the Middle East, estimated to be 80% by PC Globe 5.0 - 1992. Before the civil war, Lebanon had the highest standard of living in the Middle East.

Publishing and Book Trade

The earliest Phoenician inscriptions were discovered in a tomb in the city of al-Jubayl, also known as Byblos, some 25 miles north of Beirut. These inscriptions were dated between the 13th and the 10th centuries BCE. Byblos is the Greek word from which the term biblio, or book, is derived. Consequently, many scholars have referred to Lebanon as the land of the book.⁵ Lebanon has the longest history of printing and publishing of books in the Middle East.

Printing was introduced to Lebanon in 1610 when two Maronite monks, who were educated in Rome, brought a printing press back home.⁶ Missionaries, both Catholic and Protestant, were very influential in the education of the Lebanese, they established schools in all parts of the country, and printed books to support their educational systems. Printing and publication were limited to religious books for many years. Although printing was introduced by Europeans and Americans, the Lebanese very quickly learned the printing trade on their own. The Ottoman rulers tried for many years without success to stop printing in Lebanon. Lebanese printing remained very primitive until 1866, when the Protestants established the present American University of Beirut and brought modern printing equipment to support the educational mission. During the same period, the Catholics also developed a modern printing press to support their activities. Competition between the two greatly improved printing in the country, and as a result, the Catholic Press in Beirut became one of the best printing presses in the Middle East. Lebanon remained the leading country in printing until the end of the l9th century when Egypt became dominant as a result of its economic development. Ever since then, Cairo and Beirut have competed for the leadership role in printing and publishing.

Commercial Publishing

Lebanon is the only country in the Middle East that does not have an official government press, and unlike many other Arab countries, the government of Lebanon has never attempted to control publishing. This has encouraged the private sector to expand its activities. It has been estimated that in 1963, Lebanon had 372 printing presses with an output of 387 books, 49 dailies, 117 literary weeklies, 42 political weeklies, and 4 political monthlies in Arabic, French, Armenian, and English.⁷ In 1983 there were 470 registered publications in Arabic, French, English, and Armenian, of which 40 were dailies.⁸ The 1986/87 issue of Dalil al-matabi` wa-al-suhuf wa-al-majallat wa-dur al-nashr wa-al-maktabat wa-sharikat al-tawzi` wa-al-i`lan fi al-duwal al-`Arabiyah, (Guide to Printing Presses, Newspapers, Periodicals, Publishers, Bookshops, Distribution and Advertising Companies in the Arab Countries), lists 376 printing presses, 279 publishers and distributors, and 290 bookshops in Lebanon.⁹ The number of publishers cited takes into account all types of publishing, including textbooks, newspapers and magazines, etc. One should recognize that many of the Lebanese publishers are both printers and distributors.

The publishing and book trade in Lebanon in general, and in Beirut in particular, has been one of the country's largest industries. In addition to its large and modern presses, several other unique factors helped the Lebanese publishing and book trade. The Lebanese have enjoyed the freedom to write and publish, together with economic and intellectual freedoms for many years. Unlike in other Arab countries, the publishing industry in Lebanon is not subject to government censorship. This freedom has given the opportunity to many authors from other Arab countries with censorship policies to publish their works in Lebanon. Lebanon has the best media and communication systems in the Middle East. Telephone, telex, and fax with worldwide reach are available. The unrestrained export and import of books combined with excellent roads, railways, ports, and air services, make the book trade an efficient and smoothly functioning process. In many other Arab countries, it takes days and even months to clear a shipment of books through customs.

Because Lebanon does not have a national bibliography, it is very difficult to estimate the number of books published annually. However, both the quantity and the quality of Lebanese publications are the best in the Middle East. Books are published in most fields of knowledge. Dictionaries, guides, and other reference sources are among the major publications of Maktabat Lubnan (Librarie du Liban). Because publishing and the book trade have become a profitable industry "reprinting of classics and out-of-print books''¹⁰ without permission from the original copyright owner has become a major activity of many Lebanese publishers. Lebanon has many modern and well organized bookshops stocked with books in Arabic, English, French and other languages. "Arabic books published in Egypt, North Africa, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and other parts of the Arab world are likely to be available in that unhappy city."¹¹

Academic Publishing

Academic publishing is also very active in Lebanon. The country has 12 institutions of higher education, including 7 or 8 universities. Notre Dame University of Loucize was established in 1988. Saddam Hussein University was also recently established, but not yet officially recognized. Several seminaries are now expanding their educational systems to become universities. The American University of Beirut publishes bibliographies and scholarly works in Middle East studies. The Departments of Political Science and of Economics of the Université Saint Joseph also publish bibliographies and books in economic, political science, law and social sciences. Université Saint Esprit de Kaslik has published some books in Middle East studies. Beirut Arab University, Lebanese University, and Imam al-Awza`i University are expanding their publishing activities. Beirut University College has published some works on women in the Middle East.

In addition to the commercial and academic sectors, Lebanon has several research institutions involved in publishing. The Arab Institute for Research and Publishing has been especially active in both Arabic and English language publication. The Institute for Palestine Studies puts out several titles each year in the areas of Middle East studies and the Arab-Israeli conflict. The International Documentary Center of Arab Manuscripts specializes in rare Arabic text editions. The Institut français d'archéologie also publishes works in Middle East studies.

Selection Sources

Good dependable bibliographic tools are required for effective and responsible selection of library materials from any part of the world. Insufficient bibliographic control is typically a problem for selectors building area studies collections. Lebanon is one of the countries that lacks well-organized bibliographic tools. Thus, selection from Lebanon requires extensive preparation to identify the available bibliographic resources.

The Lebanese National Library was established in 1921 as the result of an agreement between the French authorities and the Lebanese Vicomte Phillippe de Tarazi, the donation of whose personal library constituted the primary collection. Lebanon has also had a copyright deposit law since 1941 that requires publishers to deposit copies of their publications at the National Library. This law has never been rigorously enforced; nevertheless, the National Library's attempts to produce a national bibliography resulted in the publication of the Bulletin bibliographique Libanais, nos. 1 and 2, 1964-65.¹² Another issue of the bulletin came out for 1971 and 1972, but publication ceased after that. Although this bulletin was not a comprehensive listing of Lebanese publication during those years, the selector might find it helpful for retrospective selection.

In the absence of a Lebanese national bibliography, the selector can profitably use some of the general bibliographic selection tools for the Middle East which also deal with Lebanese publications. The first volume of The Near East National Union List, published by the Library of Congress, African and Middle Eastern Division includes Lebanese publications and can be used for retrospective collecting. Another retrospective source is Yusuf Ilyan Sarkis, Mu`jam al-Matbu`at al-`Arabiyah wa-al-mu`arrabah, published by Maktabat Sarkis in Egypt. It includes all published Arabic books, as well as translations into Arabic, from the beginning of printing to the year 1919. `Umar Ridá Kahhalah, Mu`jam al-mu'allifin: tarajim musannifi al-kutub al-`Arabiyah, is another general source that lists Lebanese authors and some of their works. However, in order to use the latter two sources, one must search for authors alphabetically by name, as there are no other indexes.

Selecting current Lebanese materials is no less complcated. al-Kitab al-`Arabi fi Lubnan (The Arabic Book in Lebanon), which began annual publication in 1979, is arguably the best selection source. Published by the Arab Cultural Club (al-Nadi al-Thaqafi al-`Arabi), it is a catalog of the annual Lebanese book fair with a comprehensive listing of Lebanese publications. This source is current, and the civil war did not seem to have interrupted its publication. The Accessions List: Middle East, published by the Library of Congress Office in Cairo, Egypt, is another excellent source and includes current Lebanese publications that have been acquired by the office for the Library of Congress and other participants in the Middle East Cooperative Acquisitions Program (MECAP). This office is very helpful in providing bibliographic information to MECAP participating librarians, as well as scholars undertaking research in Middle Eastern Studies.

Publishers' catalogs and book dealers' lists are reliable and useful resources for selecting Lebanese materials. Many of the Lebanese publishers and book dealers are willing to send their lists and catalogs upon request. Book dealers and publishers, such as Librarie du Liban, al-Munajjid, Dar al-Mashriq, Sulaiman's Bookshop, Lebanon Bookshop, Byblos Bookshop, and al-Thaqafah Bookshop, to mention only a few, have issued lists of their own publications, as well as other Lebanese publications, that they can supply on order. Lebanese serials are also good resources for the selection of current materials. Book reviews and lists of recent publications are published in the bibliographic sections of many periodicals. al-Adab, established in 1953, and al-Adib, established in 1942, are the two oldest Lebanese periodicals that provide such bibliographic information. The Arabic expression sadara hadithan "recently published'' is a promotional term used to introduce lists of new publications, and these periodicals also provide a short review of each publication. Majallat al-Fikr al-Islami and al-Mustaqbal al-`Arabi provide listings and reviews of recent publications. al-Maktabah al-`Arabiyah (the Arabic Bookshop) provides "lengthier reviews of selected books and articles on the Lebanese book scene.''¹³ Using serials as a selection means, however, requires much of time to examine many issues of periodicals. A good knowledge of Arabic is, of course, also required.

The selection of Lebanese periodicals is a somewhat difficult process. Again, the reason for this is the lack of comprehensive, well organized bibliographic tools to aid in selection. However, some sources dealing with the selection of periodicals from the Middle East in general might be used to select Lebanese periodicals. The Arab League Educational, Cultural, and Scientific Organization (ALECSO), published al-Dawriyah al-`Arabiyah in 1973. This has served as a catalog of current periodicals in the Arab world. Another similar publication is Muhammad Aman's Arab Periodicals and Serials, (New York: Garland Publications, 1979, 252 pp.).¹⁴ The 1986/87 Guide to Printing Presses, Newspapers, Periodicals... mentioned above, lists 55 serials published in Lebanon.¹⁵ Dar al-Sayyad publishes 11 periodicals. The 1991 edition of The Middle East and North Africa lists 40 Lebanese dailies, 29 weeklies, and 21 other periodicals.¹⁶

Acquisitions

In the past, acquiring library materials from Lebanon was much easier than it was from any other country in the Middle East. Lebanon's book trade is well-organized and supported by good communication and transportation systems. There are no trade restrictions on the export and import of books. One can acquire books from a dealer or directly from a publisher, under either a blanket-order plan or a selection- ("approval") plan. Under a selection plan, one establishes an agreement with a bookdealer, who will provide a list of publications from which to choose. Most Lebanese book dealers and publishers are very reliable. They are willing to ship books to any library in the world. Even during the civil war they were able to send books to the U.S. through Cyprus and other countries.

Sulaiman's Bookshop is one of the most dependable book suppliers in Lebanon. The owner, Mohammad Sulaiman, is a professional librarian and is aware of the problems facing the selector for area studies. He will supply books from Syria, Egypt and other Arab countries and provide up-to-date and well-organized publications lists with complete and accurate bibliographic information for each item. He has provided excellent service to American libraries for many years at reasonable prices. Sulaiman's Bookshop is highly recommended.

MECAP is another dependable acquisition source for Lebanese materials. It supplies publications through blanket order or notification/selection plans. Under the blanket order arrangement, the participant in the program establishes a broadly-defined profile according to type of materials and fields of interest for collection. MECAP then sends all the published materials within that profile. Under the notification/selection arrangement, MECAP circulates lists of available publications to participants, who then select materials to be acquired from the lists. This program is a cost-effective way to acquire Lebanese materials. It has access to U.S. mail through the American Embassy in Cairo, Egypt, and thus orders are received on a timely basis. Arrangement for the delivery of a week or two of accumulated newspapers and magazines by airmail can be made.

Several Lebanese publishers are willing to deal directly with U.S. libraries with a blanket order program. Among these are the New Book Publishing House, the Byblos Librairie Bookshop, the Institute of Palestine Studies, the Publishing and Research Organization, and the Librairie du Liban. Dealing with several publishers and bookdealers at once, however, creates more work for the selector, as numerous invoices have to be processed and paid. Since Lebanese publishers have access to the books of all other publishers, one can make an agreement with one dependable publisher to acquire all needed materials. In fact, a Lebanese distributor can supply books from many other Arab countries as well.

Exchange acquisition programs might work well in several other countries, but I am not aware of any such programs in Lebanon. The reason for this is that publishing in Lebanon is dominated by commercial and private publishers who are in the business for profit. Lebanese academic and research institutions might be willing to develop exchange programs, but this will require personal contact with each institution.

The best way to acquire Lebanese materials is by on-site acquisition. However, acquisition trips require extensive preparation and financial support from the home institution. Many administrators in American academic libraries do not see the value of acquisition trips, and only a few institutions are willing to support such travel. In preparation, the selector should prepare a list of the needed materials. By consulting with faculty in the area study program and using the above mentioned selection tools, one can usually prepare a good shopping list. Travel to Lebanon before the civil war was relatively simple and easy. Visas were not difficult to obtain, and there were no travel restrictions at all. During the trip, the selector should try to establish as many personal contacts as possible with book dealers, publishers, academic and research institutions, and private and government agencies. Personal contacts are the most effective way of obtaining books from Lebanon or anywhere else in the Middle East. Middle Eastern people in general are very friendly, and establishing contacts should not be difficult. While in the country, the selector should visit as many bookshops as possible, compare the prices, and ask for discounts. In many cases one can save enough money from discounts to pay for the acquisition trip. Friendly relationships with publishers and book dealers usually save the book-buying traveler a great deal of time and trouble. Many vendors will provide the selector with transportation from the airport and around town.

Although travel was forbidden, or greatly restricted, during the civil war, the acquisition of Lebanese materials remained relatively easy. In compensation, Lebanese publishers and book dealers stepped up their participation in book fairs outside Lebanon during the war in order to market their books. The selector should plan book-buying trips for the fall of the year, when the major Arab book fairs take place. For example, at the Riyadh 6th International Bookfair in 1987, some 108 Lebanese publishers and book dealers participated, and many of them were selling the products of publishers who were not able to attend. After the political situation in Lebanon improved and stabilized, on-site acquisition again became the best means of acquiring Lebanese materials.

The civil war in Lebanon greatly affected the book industry in the country. Many major publishing houses and bookstores were destroyed, and many others moved out of the country. Skilled workers and technicians also left the country to find work in the Arab Gulf countries or elsewhere. Most of the Lebanese power lines were also destroyed, and this affected communication with the outside world. All of these factors had a profound effect on the publishing industry and the book trade in Lebanon. The prices of books sharply increased, and the Lebanese pound was greatly devalued. Despite all these difficulties, publishing and the book trade remained as vital and strong as it could. Lebanon has regained its leadership role in the Middle East book publishing industry. Strong competition, however, emerged during the difficult times of the civil war, most notably in the rich countries of the Arab Gulf.

Appendix A. Selection Sources

Accessions List: Middle East. V. 1- . 1962- . Cairo: Library of Congress Office.

Daghir, Yusuf As`ad. Masadir al-dirasah al-adabiyah. 4 v. in 5, Sayda, Lubnan: Matba`at Dayr al-Mukhallis, 1950-1983.

Dalil al-matabi` wa-al-suhuf wa-majallat wa-dur al- nashr wa-al-maktabat wa-sharikat al-tawzi` wa-al-i`lan fi al-duwal al-`Arabiyah. Bayrut: Dar al-Nadwah al-Islamiyah, 1986/87.

Exposition le Livre et le Liban jusqu'à 1900. Oeuvrage publié sous la direction de Camille Aboussouan. Paris: Unesco, 1982.

al-Kitab al-`Arabi fi Lubnan. Bayrut: al-Nadi al-Thaqafi al-`Arabi, 1980-.

The Middle East and North Africa - 1992, 38th ed., London: Europa Publications Limited, 1991.

The Near East National Union List. Compiled by Dorothy Stehle under the direction of George N. Ayiyeh. Washington: Library of Congress, African and Middle Eastern Division, 1988-.

Saliba, Maurice. Index Libanicus. Antelias, Lebanon: Saliba, 1979-1982.

Sarkis, Yusuf Ilyan. Mu`jam al-matbu`at al-`Arabiyah wa- al-mu`arrabah: wa-huwa shamil li-asma' al-kutub al-matbu`ah fi al-aqtar al-sharqiyah wa-al-gharbiyah, ma`a dhikr asma' mu'allifiha wa-lum`ah min tarjamatihim wa-dhalika min yawm zuhur al-tiba`ah ilá nihayat al-sanah al-hijriyah 1339 al-muwafiq li-sanat 1919 miladiyah. Misr: Matba`at Sarkis, 1928-1931.

Université Saint Joseph (Beirut, Lebanon). Bibliographie de l'Université Saint Joseph de Beyrouth: Soixante Quinze Ans de Travaux Littéraires et Scientifiques. Beyrouth: Bibliothèque Orientale, 1951.

Appendix B. Publishers, Distributors, and Book Dealers

The following list is very selective. For a more comprehensive listing of publishers, distributors, and book dealers, the following two sources are recommended: The Middle East and North Africa - 1992 [published annually, the latest edition being 1997] provides a list of selected Lebanese publishers. Dalil al-matabi` wa-al-suhuf wa-al-majallat wa-dur al-nashr... also provides a very comprehensive list of Lebanese publishers, distributors, and book dealers.

The Arab Institute for Research and Publishing.