Before the French mandate, Syria was the term used by the Ottomans and the Romans to refer to the area now occupied by the Syrian Arab Republic, the Republic of Lebanon, Jordan, and Israel. In 1918, the French divided up "Greater Syria," and each of the formerly component countries received its present borders. This essay will introduce the selector of library materials in the field of Middle Eastern studies to the present Syrian Arab Republic (in Arabic, al-Jumhuriyah al-`Arabiyah al-Suriyah), henceforth referred to as Syria. As a result of its intervention in Lebanon, its role in the Iraq-Kuwait war, the Arab-Israeli conflict, the Iran-Iraq war, and its mediating efforts to free American and European hostages, Syria has received much world attention for the past several years.
Geographical, Historical, and Cultural Background
Syria is located on the east coast of the Mediterranean Sea and is bordered by Turkey to the north, Jordan and Israel to the south, Lebanon to the southwest, and Iraq to the east and southeast. Syria covers an area of 185,180 sq. km. (71,498 sq. miles), with an estimated population of over 12 million. Syria has seen a rapid growth in population since its independence in 1946. Syria's coastal plain is surrounded by high mountains with a maximum elevation of 9,232 feet on Mount Hermon. The coastal areas are hot and humid in the summers. Summers in the mountains above 5,000 feet are cool and nice. Inland, the winters are cool and the summers are hot. Damascus and Aleppo, the two largest cities, have an average low temperature of 34-40° F in the winter.
Syria's history is long and rich, as it was ruled successively by the Canaanites, Phoenicians, Egyptians, Persians, Greeks, Romans, and Ottomans, who ruled Syria from 1516-1918. Syria was placed under the French mandate soon after the First World War.1 The capital city of Syria is Damascus, which is "claimed to be the oldest capital in the world, having been continuously inhabited since about 2,000 BCE, and Aleppo may be even older."2
Syria was granted full independence in 1946, and it has been politically unstable since that date. This political instability is mostly due to the Arab-Israeli conflict and internal political conflicts. In 1949, and as a result of the Arab defeat in the 1948-49 war with Israel, Syria went through three coups d'\'etat. In 1958, Syria formed a union with Egypt in an attempt to solve its political problems. The union was organized by the Ba`th party (Arab Socialist Party). In 1961, a coup destroyed the union with Egypt and restored the Syrian national identity. In 1963, another coup brought the Ba`th party to power. Struggle within the Ba`th party itself between the conservatives and the radicals has led to two other coups. In 1966, the radicals' coup brought Salah Jadid into power, and four years later another coup brought Jadid's arch rival, Hafiz al-Asad, to power who has served as the president of Syria since 1970.3
Historically, Syria has a rich cultural heritage. Its strategic location makes it a bridge between the Mesopotamian and Nile Valley civilizations. It is also a link between Asia, Africa, and Europe. Throughout history, conquering armies introducing different cultures have passed through Syria,4 leaving their cultural marks. The cultural diversity of Syria today reflects its rich history. Islamic armies came to Syria in the seventh century and gradually the country adopted the new religion. Most of the people in Syria today are Sunni Muslims (75%), followed by the Shi`ite Muslims (15%). The Kurds, Turkmen, and Circassians are Sunni. The `Alawis, the Druze, and the Isma`ilis are Shi`ites. The rest of the population is divided among several Christian denominations: Greek Orthodox, Armenian Orthodox, Greek Catholic, Syrian Catholic, Syrian Orthodox, Armenian Catholic, Maronite, and Protestant. Syria also has a few thousand Jews living mostly in Damascus.5 In addition to this religious and cultural diversity, Syria has a number of political parties: the Muslim Brotherhood, the Syrian Nationalists, the Arab Nationalists, the Arab Socialists, and the Communists. However, these parties are kept under government control and any anti-government activity is severely punished, e.g., the destruction of the Muslim Brotherhood in the city of Hama in 1982.
Arabic is the official language of Syria. Some 85% of the people speak Arabic as their native language. Kurdish is spoken in the northeast and northwest of the country. Turkish is spoken in villages around the border with Turkey. Armenian is spoken mostly in Aleppo and other major cities. Circassian and Syriac are spoken by other minorities in various places in the country. English, French, German and Russian are taught to children after their elementary education.6 Education is free at all levels in government schools and universities. All private schools were nationalized in 1963 when the Ba`th party came to power. These schools now operate under government control. Syria has four major universities with several colleges and technical institutions. The Syrian government allocates approximately 10% of its national budget for education. The first six years of elementary education are compulsory, but neither secondary nor higher education is mandatory. It is estimated that in the 1986/87 school year, Syria had over 2 million pupils in elementary education, 900,000 in secondary education, and 131,000 students in higher education.7 The literacy rate in Syria, according to the Information Data Base PC Globe 5.0 (1992) of Tempe, Arizona, is 64%.
Publishing and the Book Trade
Printing and publishing are not well developed. Although printing was introduced in Aleppo in 1706, when its press was established, printing remained for years primitive in Syria. By the beginning of the First World War, Syria had only 5 printing presses.8 Underdevelopment of printing in the country can be attributed to several factors. First, the Ottomans who ruled Syria for many years were opposed to education and development and thus put a curb on the development of printing. Second, the Syrians relied on the well developed presses in Lebanon to publish and print their publications. Third, the political and economic situation in the country did not encourage the Syrians to develop a printing industry, because financial gains were very limited in that trade. The printing situation did not improve after the Ottomans or during the French mandate (1918-1946), because for political or religious reasons the French encouraged the development of printing in Lebanon and discouraged it in Syria.9 Thus, printing and publishing in Syria remained underdeveloped until the country received its full independence and began to import modern printing presses from Italy, France, and Germany. In 1952, Syria had some 47 printing presses: 24 in Damascus, 14 in Aleppo, and the rest were located in other cities. Some 72 newspapers and magazines were printed and published in that year.10 The number of printing presses today is probably less because of the paper shortage in the country.
There are a number of factors that affect the publishing and book trade in Syria. First, Syria has only one paper factory; it does not produce enough paper to cover the needs of its presses. The quality of its paper is not very good and its price is very high. Frequently, the publisher has to purchase very expensive paper on the black market. The cartons which are required for bookbinding and covering are also in short supply; when available, they are very expensive. Because salaries are low and the cost of living is high, many printing technicians have left the country for higher pay in the Arab Gulf countries. Moreover, income of most Syrian readers is limited, and thus they cannot afford to purchase books because of the high prices. Therefore, most publishers print only 2,000 or 3,000 copies of each publication. Consequently, good quality and/or popular books can go out of print soon after publication. This situation also discourages authors, as they will not be able to make enough money to live on from the sale of their books. Unfortunately, censorship is another major problem in Syria. Any publication that does not agree with government policies and political strategies will not be published. Marketing Syrian publications is still another major problem. Promotion, advertising, and book reviewing are not very well organized. Customs, import and export regulations, as well as shipping restrictions make the marketing of the Syrian book a complicated process.11
Despite these problems, which are very common in most Middle Eastern book markets, Syrian publications are important for any good collection in Middle East studies. Selectors in academic libraries in the U.S. have ignored the Syrian market for many years. However, Syria today is becoming a major contributor of library materials in the fields of Middle Eastern and Islamic studies. Therefore, the selector should work his way around those problems and attempt to acquire as many Syrian publications as possible.
Government Publishing
Before 1958, al-Majma` al-`Ilmi al-`Arabi (The Arab Scientific Academy), now known as Majma` al-Lughah al-`Arabiyah bi-Dimashq (The Arabic Language Academy in Damascus), has been the only government-related organization involved in publishing since its establishment in 1921. However, its publishing activities have been limited. Between 1921 and 1945, the Academy published only 9 titles and 21 issues of its quarterly magazine: Majallat al-Majma` al-`Ilmi al-`Arabi, now called Majallat Majma` al-Lughah al-`Arabiyah bi-Dimashq. Between 1945 and 1963, the Academy published 69 titles and 19 issues of its magazine. Between 1963 and 1985, the Academy published 165 titles and 22 issues of its magazine.12
The Ministry of Culture and National Guidance was established in 1958 and began its activities in publishing then. Between 1958 and 1987, the Ministry published 1215 titles of which, however, only 32 titles were published before 1963. The number of Ministry publications increased from 4 titles in 1960 to over 100 titles in 1985.13 Since 1986, the number of Ministry publications has averaged approximately 50 titles each year.
Ittihad al-Kuttab al-`Arab (Union of Arab Writers), is another government publisher. It was established in 1970 and published some 591 titles by 1987.14 Its average annual publication since 1988 has been approximately 20 titles. The Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Agriculture are also active government publishers. The total number of titles published by the government between 1946 and 1987 was estimated to be 2069 of which 101 titles were published before the 1963 revolution which brought the Ba`th party to power. These statistics on publishing in the government sector have led many writers to claim that government publishing has increased over 95% during the Ba`th regime.15 The 1988 issue of the Syrian National Bibliography listed over 100 titles published by the various government agencies, and the 1989 issue listed over 90 titles published by these agencies. This number does not include academic publications, which in Syria are also controlled by the government.
Government publications in Syria cover several fields of knowledge. Most of the publications of the Arabic Language Academy in Damascus are in the field of cultural heritage. The publications of the Union of Arab Writers are mostly in contemporary Arabic literature. The Ministry of Culture and National Guidance publishes in the areas of cultural heritage, contemporary Arabic literature, studies in the humanities and social sciences, and a small number of scientific publications. A number of publications in education and agriculture are also published each year. Several literary, intellectual and technical magazines are also published by the government. Majallat al-Mawqif al-Adabi, Majallat al-Adab al-Ajnabiyah, Majallat al-Turath al-`Arabi, and Jaridat al-Usbu` al-`Arabi are published by the Union of Arab Writers. The Ministry of Culture publishes several other magazines.16
Commercial Publishing
Before 1958, publishing and the book trade in Syria were limited to the private and commercial sectors. Private publishers controlled all the publishing activities. They published only what they felt would sell and realize profit. Syrian authors at that time did not have many magazines in which to publish their work. Most Syrian authors published their works in the two Lebanese magazines al-Adab and al-Adib, and in a few Egyptian magazines. The situation in commercial publishing did not improve much even after the Ministry of Culture and National Guidance was established and began its active support of publishing. Government censorship forced many Syrian authors to publish their work outside the country. However, commercial publishing in Syria has expanded rapidly in the past eight years. The 1986 through 1989 issues of the Syrian National Bibliography listed an annual average number of publishers of 150. This number includes all types of publishers, such as government, academic and commercial. Some 62 of these publishers produced one or two titles a year. Some 32 commercial publishers published five or more titles. The annual average production of Syria is a little over 1000 titles.17
Dar Tlass lil-Dirasat wa-al-Tarjamah wa-Nashr is a major commercial publisher with an annual production of over 30 titles. Its 1989 Catalog of Publications listed a total production of 669 titles. Its publications cover several fields of knowledge and include reference sources, literature, short stories, Islamic studies, history, cultural heritage, political science, Arab-Israeli conflict, and several other fields. Al-Mu'assasah al-`Arabiyah lil-Sahafah wa-al-Dirasat (OFA), is another major commercial publisher, and its publications include Middle Eastern studies, economics, political studies, and international relations in English and French. It also publishes the periodicals Revue de la presse arab, Numéro éeconomique du Venredi, and Syrie & monde arab. Dar al-Ma`rifah publishes some 40 titles annually, and Manshurat al-Khushin (or al-Khashin) publishes about 35 titles a year. Other major commercial publishers will be listed in Appendix B. Commercial publishing in Syria is expanding, and Damascus will soon become an important center for publishing and book trade. Many authors and publishers are urging the government to grant them the freedom to write and publish. They are calling for the elimination of censorship and customs regulations relative to the import and export of books.
Academic Publishing
Syria has four major universities. The University of Damascus is the oldest academic institution in the country. It was established in 1919 when Syria was under the French mandate. The University of Aleppo was founded in 1960 in the city of Aleppo. Tishrin University was founded in 1971 in the city of Latakia (Ladhiqiyah), and al-Ba`th University was established in 1979 in the city of Homs. The University of Damascus is the most active in publishing, and in 1989 it published 225 titles, followed by Aleppo University which published 83 titles. al-Ba`th University and Tishrin University are increasing their publishing activities, and in 1989 11 titles were published by al-Ba`th University, and 7 titles were published by Tishrin University. The publications of these universities cover many fields of knowledge with concentration on scholarly and research studies as well as many textbooks and few periodicals.
Selection Sources
Bibliographic control in Syria has greatly improved since the establishment of the Asad Library in 1983. Before that, the selection of Syrian retrospective material was limited to a few sources. Yusuf Ilyan Sarkis, Mu`jam al-Matbu`at al-`Arabiyah wa-al-Mu`arrabah, published by Maktabat Sarkis in Cairo, Egypt, is a general selection source for Middle Eastern materials and includes Syrian retrospective materials. Mu`jam al-Mu'allifin al-Suriyin fi al-Qarn al-`Ishrin (Dictionary of Syrian Writers in the 20th Century) is another major selection source. It lists all Syrian authors and includes brief bibliographic information and lists of publications. The Ministry of Culture started to publish a bibliography of Syrian publications in 1970. Four issues of al-Nashrah al-Maktabiyah were published between 1970 and 1974, but publication ceased soon afterwards. Although this bibliography is incomplete, one may use it as a selection tool for the years 1970-1974. Al-Zahiriyah Library in Damascus, which was established in 1880, has issued over twelve indexes of Syrian manuscripts. These indexes can be used as selection guides for manuscripts.
Legal deposit was established in Syria in 1949. The intention of the law was that two copies of every work published in Syria be deposited in al-Zahiriyah National Library. The law was not enforced until July 1983, when a presidential decree required the deposit of 5 copies of each work published by a Syrian author in the Asad Library. The Asad Library became the National Library of Syria, replacing al-Zahiriyah Library. The Asad Library has published annual issues of the Syrian National Bibliography (al-Bibliyuqhrafiya al-Wataniyah al-Suriyah) since 1985. The bibliography is a comprehensive list of Syrian publications. It includes short annotations for some entries and author, title, and subject indexes. A list of all Syrian publishers and a list of newspapers and periodicals are also included. The Asad Library is attempting the publication of a Syrian retrospective bibliography. The first issue was published in 1987. The Asad Library also publishes a quarterly index to Syrian periodicals (al-Kashshaf al-Tahlili lil-Suhuf wa-al-Majallat al-Suriyahi).
The U.S. Library of Congress Accession List: Middle East (since 1994, no longer issued in print) is another major source for the selection of Syrian publications. It is a bimonthly publication that lists titles acquired by the Library of Congress office in Cairo from the various Middle Eastern countries including Syria. It includes both commercial and government publications. Book dealers' lists and publishers' catalogs are excellent sources of bibliographic information. Sulaiman's Bookshop in Beirut, Lebanon, provides acquisitions lists that include Syrian publications. Dar Tlass lists of publications is well organized by subject areas and can be used for selecting current materials. Dar al-Ahali publishes an annotated list of its publications. Dar al Rashid also provides an annotated bibliography of its publications. Dar al-Fikr, Dar Dimashq, and Dar al-Kitab al-`Arabi all have updated catalogs of their publications. Almost all major Syrian publishers are now willing to send copies of their catalogs of publications to American and other libraries. Syrian publishers also participate in many annual book fairs all over the Middle East. Forty-two Syrian publishers participated in the 1987 International Book Fair in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. The catalog of this book fair could also be used as a selection resource for Syrian publications.
Current Syrian periodicals such as al-Ma`rifah published by the Ministry of Culture and National Guidance, lists new publications under the heading "Sadara Hatithan" (recently published). Majallat Majma` al-Lughah al-`Arabiyah bi-Dimashq also lists new publications with short reviews. Periodicals issued by academic institutions and learned societies, such as Bulletin d'Études Orientales, Majallat Buhuth Jami`at Halab, and Dirasat Tarikhiyah (Damascus University) also announce titles of new publications.
Syria has some 56 periodicals and 19 newspapers. The basic sources mentioned above can be used for selecting Syrian periodicals and newspapers. The recently published al-Kashshaf al-Tahlili lil-Suhuf wa-al-Majallat al-Suriyah is an excellent selection resource. It is arranged according to subject areas. The Syrian National Bibliography provides a comprehensive list of all active newspapers and periodicals. The Middle East and North Africa (1992) is another good source that provides a list of selected Syrian serials.
Acquisitions
Acquiring Syrian publications has been a major problem for many U.S. libraries. Politics has played a major role in this problem. However, recent political developments seem to have improved political relations between the Syrian government and the countries in the western world. The Asad Library is playing a major role in promoting the distribution of Syrian publications outside the country. The library has established exchange programs with many institutions around the world, and willingly continues to do so. When I talked with the director of the library in July 1988, he was very supportive of the idea of exchange. Any interested selector can write directly to Ghassan al-Lahham, Asad Library, Damascus, Syria to establish an exchange program.
The Library of Congress Middle East Cooperative Acquisition Program (MECAP) has established a good relationship with the Asad Library. For the first time in many years MECAP has access to Syrian publications through their representative in Damascus. MECAP provides a blanket order plan that includes Syrian publications. The program's diplomatic connection makes it easy to obtain Syrian publications. Sulaiman's Bookshop also has access to Syrian publications and is a good source for the acquisition of Syrian materials.
Syrian government publications can be acquired directly from al-Maktab al-Markazi lil-Ihsa' (Central Bureau of Statistics). The Office Arabe de Presse et de Documentation (OFA) is also willing to supply government publications on a direct order plan. I also believe that the Asad Library has access to government publications and is willing to send them on an exchange plan.
Direct order from Syrian publishers, book dealers, and distributors is not recommended at this time. Censorship, restrictions on import and export of books, and currency exchange make direct ordering almost impossible. The price of books has also sharply increased in the past few years. However, the value of the dollar has also increased against the Syrian pound (presently $1.00 = 20 Syrian pounds). The black market rate is more than double the official rate ($1.00 = 45 Syrian pounds). The Syrian government is trying to do away with the black market by offering a favorable official rate for the dollar.
The acquisition of Syrian periodicals is available through MECAP. The best way to receive Syrian newspapers is through this program. Periodicals may also be ordered directly from "the Syrian Arab Establishment for Printed Materials, which has the sole distribution rights for them."18 I am certain that Sulaiman's Bookshop will also supply Syrian periodicals.
The best way to acquire Syrian materials is by on site acquisition through travel and personal contact. Travel to Syria is not as complicated as it is to many other Arab countries. Although the State Department has discouraged and restricted travel to Syria, American citizens have been welcomed in Syria. Despite of the State Department recommendation, the writer has traveled to Syria on a U.S. diplomatic and regular passport many times between 1980 and 1988 with no major problems. However, the traveler should carefully follow Syrian regulations. All foreigners must change $100.00 at the Airport at the official government rate. While in the country, the traveler should be prepared to pay for the hotel room in U.S. dollars, which translates into a much higher rate than paying in Syrian pounds. The traveller also must keep records of changing U.S. dollars for Syrian pounds in Syrian banks. The Syrian government does not want foreigners to change their money in the black market.
Establishing a personal and friendly relationship with people in the book business should be the main purpose of the acquisition trip. Although Syria is not as conservative as many other Arab countries in terms of restrictions on prayer times, religious holidays, and working hours, the selector should plan carefully for the trip. A selection list should be prepared ahead of time and, if possible, one should make appointments with book dealers, publishers, government and private organizations far in advance of travel. The selector should not attempt to ship acquired books individually. Arrangements should be made with a Syrian citizen or organization to handle the mailing of the books. It is easier for a native to go through customs than it is for a foreigner. Paying a little extra for some dependable agent from within is far less trouble than attempting to mail the books personally. The best time to travel to Syria is between September and April. Travel during the month of Ramadan, the month of fasting to all Muslims, should be avoided as much as possible.
There is no one perfect way to acquire Syrian materials. One should use judgement to combine as many means of acquisition as possible. Ordering directly, establishing an exchange program, and on-site acquisition are the means that one should use to acquire library material from Syria or, for that matter, from any other country in the Middle East.
Appendix A: Selection Sources
Appendix B: Publishers, Distributors, and Bookdealers
The most recent sources have been used to compile this list. However, addresses and telephone information could change as a result of expansion and/or closing of some publishers and bookdealers.
1In order to appreciate the role of Syria in history, the selector of library materials should read Philip K. Hitti's History of Syria, including Lebanon and Palestine, 2. ed. (New York: Macmillan, 1957). Although this book is somewhat outdated and much additional information about Syria, especially during the Islamic period, has become available since it was written, it remains a good historical work. A good, short history of Syria is provided by The Middle East and North Africa 1992, 38. ed. (London: Europa Publications Limited, 1992).
2The Middle East and North Africa 1992, p. 847.
3Trevor Mostyn, Albert Hourani, eds., The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the Middle East and North Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), pp. 424-425.
4Ibid., p. 423.
5The New Encyclopaedia Britannica, vol. 17 (Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc., 1983), p. 922.
6Ibid.
7The Middle East and North Africa 1992, p. 880.
8Khalil Sabat, Tarikh al-Tiba`ah fi al-Sharq al-`Arabi, al-tab`ah 2. (al-Qahirah: Dar al Ma`arif, 1966), p. 126.
9Ibid.
10Ibid.
11This summary of publishing conditions is based on Adib Tanbakji, "Mushkilat al-Kitab fi al-Qatr al-`Arabi", al-Nashir al-`Arabi $=$ {\fnt Arab Publisher, no.\ 11, (1980), 139--141.
12`Arsan, `Ali `Uglah, Mushkilat fi al-Thaqafah al-`Arabiyah (Damascus: Ittihad al-Kuttab al-`Arab, 1989), p. 179.
13Ibid., p.\ 179.
14Ibid., p. 181.
15 Ibid., p. 182.
16Ibid., p. 182-183.
17Maktabat al-Asad, al-Bibliyughrafiya al-Wataniyah al-Suriyah (Dimashq: Wizarat al-Thaqafah, Maktabat al-Asad, Mudiriyat al-Tawthiq wa-al-I`lam, 1991).
18Katherine van de Vate, Books from the Arab World: A Guide to Selections and Acquisitions, (Durham: Middle East Libraries Committee, 1988), p. 31.
*Editor's note: this address was changed, effective January 1997, to P.O. Box 136643